EDUCATIONAL REHABILITATION AND RECONSTRUCTION: 1979-1989

People’s Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) or Heng Samrin regime (1979 to 1989) started to rebuild the country. This regime, which was supported by communist Vietnam and other socialist bloc nations, ruled Cambodia after the fall of the Khmer Rouge. The regime’s top priority between 1979 and 1981 was to reinstall educational institutions. Generous support from UNICEF and International Red Cross, together with a strong determination to restructure Cambodia by the PRK, saw about 6,000 educational institutions rebuilt and thousands of teachers trained within a very short period (Dunnett, 1993). According to an interview with a senior education official who had been involved in basic education system and teacher training since 1979, the regime’s policy on enhancing education was: 1979-1981 was a period of restructuring and rehabilitating of both infrastructure and human resources. By restructuring and rehabilitation I refer to collecting school-aged children and putting them into schools despite in the poor condition. Classes were even conducted in makeshift, open-air classrooms or under trees. We appealed to all those surviving teachers and literate people to teach the illiterates. We used various slogans such as ‘going to teach and going to school is nation-loving’ and so on. There were no official licences or any requirements for taking on the teaching job. We just tried to open schools and literacy classes, regardless of their quality.

The rebirth of education in Cambodia in 1979 represents a historically unique experience from that of any other nations. In the early 1980s, all levels of schooling (from kindergarten to higher education) were reopened and the total enrolment was almost one million. Many teachers were better trained and quality gradually enhanced. Enrolment in primary education in 1989, increased to 1.3 million, and in lower secondary to 0.24 million, compared with only 0.9 million and 4,800 in 1980 (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, 1999). However, it is worth noting that in any primary school, about 30 per cent of the children had no father, 10 per cent had no mother, and between 5 and 10 per cent were orphans (Postlethwaite, 1988). The political and economic disturbance haunted Cambodia pending the second term of the current Royal Government and the complete eradication of the Khmer Rouge’s machinery and organization in 1998. Nevertheless, the people of Cambodia still have pride and look forward to a golden age when their nation will again be prosperous.

CONCLUSION: Social and political factors of the last four decades from the 1950s to the 1980s determined the flux of crisis and progress of the schooling systems. The former extensive Khmer Empire, Cambodia suffered massive socio-cultural destruction, political turmoil, genocide, international isolation, and socio-economic crisis during the civil conflicts of the 1970s and 1980s. Political and economic problems during the above two decades were not isolated from the education structure, which was also seriously damaged during the civil conflicts. Shifting from limited or no access for girls to formal education within the traditional school system to the French schooling system in the early twentieth century was a positive step towards universal basic education. However, although primary education was made compulsory in the 1950s and 1960s, there was no presence of mechanism in handling the implementation of the policy. The changing concepts of basic education from basic literacy to primary education, and to primary plus lower secondary education in the mid -1990s saw the expansion of learning opportunities for better lifestyle and socio-economic amelioration in contemporary Cambodia. The experiments of the 1950s and 1960s were largely unsuccessful because modern educational contents and outcomes could not meet the actual needs of the society at that time. In other words, many Cambodians feared that the modernity would lead to the demise of their traditional culture Dy 97 inherited from their proud Angkorian ancestors. However, present-day Cambodians consider reforms in education during the 1990s as positive measures towards socio-economic development and improving freedom of lives. This acknowledges tremendous support from international community for guidance and recommendations.

SCHOOLING ABOLITION: 1975-79

Cambodia was eventually plunged into a complete darkness during the regime of Democratic Kampuchea, or the infamous Khmer Rouge, locally known as the Pol Pot regime which came into power in April 1975. The regime led Cambodia into revolutionary Maoist communism. Pol Pot’s so-called ‘great leap’ revolutionary regime further ravaged Cambodia through the mass destruction of individual property, schooling system, and social culture by forcing the entire population either into the army camps or onto collective farms (Chandler, 1998; Dunnett, 1993). Damage was inflicted not only to the educational infrastructure, but Cambodia also lost almost three-quarters of its educated population under the regime when teachers, students, professionalsmand intellectuals were killed or managed to escape into exile (ADB, 1996; Prasertsri, 1996). It has been estimated that about two million of the pre-war Cambodian population of around seven million were killed or died through suffering in that genocidal regime. Duggan (1996) noted that under the Pol Pot regime, literacy education beyond the lowest grade was abolished and formal schooling of the Western kind was eradicated. People were grouped into cooperatives by gender and age. Some basic reading and writing were introduced, albeit in an unstructured way and with no national curriculum, to children in some working collectives of about two to three hours every ten days (personal experience). During the early years of this regime, basic education was deemed unnecessary since almost all citizens were working in factories and farms (for further discussion see Chandler, 1991,1998; Duggan 1996). 96 Strategies and Policies for Basic Education in Cambodia: Historical Perspectives

EDUCATIONAL CRISIS AND DECLINE: 1970-75

Following over fifteen years of peace and prosperity which Cambodia enjoyed under the Sihanouk regime, General Lon Nol backed by the United States, seized control in a diplomatic coup d'état in March 1970 and declared the creation of the Khmer Republic. 

This incident may have been caused by the Prince’s foreign policy, which was interpreted as ‘practically’ supporting Communist Vietnam and angering the United States during the Vietnam War. It was the first time that Cambodia abolished its chronological monarchy. Not only was there little constructive reform during this period, but rather the country was driven to civil conflict as communism strengthened to its hold in the East and fighting in rural areas spread in early 1970s, causing barriers to schooling opportunities. In turmoil, the regime completely collapsed in April 1975 and socioeconomic achievements of the previous regime soon vanished. During the early 1970s Cambodia was inevitably drawn into the Vietnam War. 

The national instability and political turmoil led the Lon Nol regime to reduce educational funding and many school closed in rural areas. Simultaneously, many teachers fled to join the Khmer Rouge movement while student and teacher demonstrations frequently occurred in Phnom Penh. By early 1972, the United States bombardment aimed at slowing the spread of communism from the East, resulted in serious damage to the education system and infrastructure.

ENHANCING BASIC EDUCATION OPPORTUNITY: 1950-60

In the last few years before the French left Cambodia, the colonial government, with recommendations from UNESCO, grudgingly introduced compulsory education for children aged 6 to 13 years. Events during these years have shown that the effort to provide compulsory, free primary education was too hasty. 

In the report presented at the UNESCO 14th International Conference on Public Education, Princess Ping Peang Yukanthor in 1951 stated: The principle of compulsory education can thus not be fully applied – until the government is in a position to fulfill its essential duties through the possession of 94 Strategies and Policies for Basic Education in Cambodia: Historical Perspectives sufficient number of teachers able, not only to instruct, but also to educate, and of adequate funds to meet all necessary expenditures. Furthermore, Cambodian education was still without a national curriculum. Urban schools were able to offer more subjects in science and technology than the rural ones, which combined to focus on local traditional culture and more social subjects. Prince Norodom Sihanouk was crowned King of Cambodia by the French colonial power in 1941 when he was still a senior high school student at a French Lycée in southern Vietnam. His policies for education after gaining independence were to attain the goal of compulsory primary education for all and to increase, at all levels of educational opportunities from primary to university institutions. His efforts were to build a prosperous nation-state through educational development. New principles of educational development in the 1950s, with the recommendations from UNESCO, were introduced and some were fully implemented such as increasing more learning opportunities for boys and girls and fighting illiteracy among adults in rural areas. However, the achievement was far from satisfactory. Statistically, only 10 per cent of female adults were basically literate in 1958 (Peng Cheng Pung, 1959). The term ‘basic education’, which aimed at the level of primary education, was first used in the annual government report to UNESCO in 1957 which signified the UNESCO’s recommendation to integrate audio-visual materials into the existing teaching methods at basic education level was not possible at that time (Ministry of National Education, 1956-57). Regardless of inadequate quality in basic education system, several scholars (Bit, 1991; Deighton, 1971; Dunnett, 1993) noted that the Prince Sihanouk regime, compared to the French era, had made significant progress in increasing accessibility at all levels of education. Deighton (1971, p.579) statistically described: By the late 1960s, more than one million children enrolled in primary education as compared with about 0.6 million in 1960 and 0.13 million in 1950. From 1950 to 1965 the number of females enrolled at the primary level grew from 9 per cent to 39 percent. The number of teachers and schools has expanded commensurately from 1950 to 1964. Although primary enrolment rate increased, the illiteracy rate was estimated 50 per cent in 1953 for a population of 3.7 million and at 55 per cent for a population of 6.2 in 1966. Reflecting its attention and commitment to formal education in building a modern and peaceful state, the regime even increased national budget for education to over 20 per cent of the national expenditure by the late 1960s. However, other scholars such as Ayres (1999, 2000), Chandler (1991, 1998), Duggan (1996), and the two current senior education officials interviewed for this study commented that the regime had failed to universalize basic education and enhance employment for high school and university graduates. Thus, Duggan (1996, p. 364) criticized the regime: The education system provided by Sihanouk was biased towards the nation’s large cities. Rural Cambodia did not benefit from the selective expansion strategies employed by the Prince (Sihanouk) and handsomely built universities did not assist rural children and their family’s poverty. Despite criticisms of the regime for not having enhanced nationwide literacy-oriented education or increasing quality schooling opportunities for all, the regime marked a great recovery of Cambodia in the past few hundred years of its history. Dunnett (1993) claimed that during the 1960s, Cambodia had one of the highest literacy rates and most progressive education systems in Southeast Asia. Dy 95 Further details of the Prince Sihanouk regime were given in some well-known Khmer accounts, written during the 1950s and 1960s, such as those by Nou Hach’s Phka Sroaporn (The Flower Pasts its Bloom), Nhok Thaem’s Kolap Pailin (Rose of Pailin), and Rim Kin’s Sophaat, reflecting the struggles of young men and their families for education and employment. The belief that enhanced education would bring the benefit of higher employment in the government sector was raised in these works, which was also subsequently reflected in school curriculum. 

The social value of furthering the education of the individual, leading to a better future, was closely associated with the increased development of higher education institutions in the larger cities. However, the failure to give top priority to basic education during the 1960s led to the crisis in education system (for further discussion see Ayres, 2000).

EVOLVING CONCEPTS OF ‘EDUCATION’ AND ‘BASIC EDUCATION’

From a traditional, social and cultural perspective, ‘education’ is literally defined by Cambodians on one hand as an honest route to better the human condition, intentionally aimed at shaping individuals for a better lifestyle, knowledge, and good manners for living in their respective societies. On the other hand, the contemporary Cambodian perception of ‘education’ refers to a process of training and instruction, especially of children and young people in schools, which is designed to give knowledge and develop skills. Both induct the maturing individual into the life and culture of the group. This consciously and purposefully controlled learning process is conducted by more experienced members of society. 

In traditional education the pupils received instruction in the arts of writing, ethical precepts, practical philosophy, and good manners. There were also traditional codes of conduct and rules (chbab) for men and women requiring them to learn and obey to become good members of the Khmer family and society. Thus ‘basic education’, as a ‘minimally adequate level of education to live in society’ is varied in accordance to socio-cultural and socio-political factors of the state. The majority of Cambodians are peasants relying on subsistence agriculture. Traditional and cultural principles encourage men to be more sociable, gentle, courageous, responsible, and hardworking, while women are supposed to be caring, reserved, and having good housework management skills. Accordingly, parents, senior members of the society, and Buddhist teachers, were responsible for educating boys. What should be an adequate level of basic education that Cambodian citizens should be equally equipped? The 1990 WCEFA identified basic education as aimed at ‘meeting basic learning needs’. Hence, the length of formal education and education content should depend on the policy of the individual society or country. With reference to this definition, Cambodian basic education was identified in the 1950s and 1960s as at the ‘primary education level’ in urban areas and at basic literacy level (being able to read and write everyday-life texts) in rural areas (Ministry of National Education, 1956-57). The extent of this basic education ideal was first halted in the early 1970s and later dissolved between 1975 and 1979 during the infamous Khmer Rouge regime. In 1979-1981, putting children back to school and combating the illiteracy among adults were the main tasks of the regime. 

The level of education, which should be appropriate to meet basic learning needs during this period was unclear. In the mid-1980s the government started its commitment to strengthening the quality of educational provision. Education officials noted that during the 1980s, basic literacy or at least completion of the fourth grade of the primary cycle (then five years in length) was sufficient for achieving basic education.

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Latin America and the Caribbean:  Basic education programs in the LAC Region account for approximately 15 % of the Agency’s basic education resources. The LAC Bureau supports basic education programs in 8 countries: Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Peru. Programs include private sector alliances for primary education, bilingual education, non-formal alternative primary and secondary education for out-of-school youth, early childhood development and preschool, community-based model schools, policy dialogue, teacher training and early grade reading, math instruction, and interactive radio education. 

Recently, a new regional strategy was developed for the Central American countries and Mexico (the CAM Strategy) with a focus on social sector investments and transparency.  Possible program areas to be supported include national health and education accounts, municipal education and health report cards; policy and budget analysis; national assessment of learning outcomes, health and education management information systems, expenditure tracking and “leakage” analysis, budget formulation and implementation system (local and central); merit contracting and improved procurement processes, policy dialogue with teacher and health worker unions; private sector support and cost sharing; and accreditation procedures for private schools and health facilities. Basic education resources that support worldwide acquisition and assistance mechanisms and technical staff field support account for approximately 3% of the Agency’s basic education resources.The Economic Growth, Agricultural, Trade and Investment Bureau (EGAT) currently supports twelve global instruments that provide an array of technical services to Missions and Regional Bureaus in support of basic education activities.  Support is given to the Agency’s Global Education Database, an education data center to support Agency reporting requirements, the education module of the Demographic Health Survey, higher education partnerships and information communication technology. EGAT also supports activities targeting girls and women such as safe schools.  

The Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance Bureau (DCHA) utilizes basic education resources to support a worldwide assistance mechanism for strengthening civil society. The Policy, Planning and Coordination Bureau (PPC) utilizes basic education resources to support policy advisory services and research

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Basic education programs in the AFR Region account for approximately 34% of the Agency’s basic education resources. The AFR Bureau supports basic education programs in 14 countries: Benin, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Malawi, Mali, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Uganda, and Zambia. In addition, Missions in Kenya, Tanzania and Eritrea are adding education to their country programs. 

Since 1990, these countries have achieved strong enrollment gains and much greater equity for girls:  there were 12 million more children enrolled in primary schools in 2000 than there were in 1990. Other accomplishments include significantly increased public expenditures on education; improved qualifications and conditions of service for teachers; improved education sector management information systems; and increased local, regional, and community participation and decision-making in education. Several important cross-cutting themes continue to be targeted: (a) HIV/AIDS -- in particular, mitigating the impact of this disease on Africa’s education systems; (b) gender equity -- increasing educational opportunities for girls, and (c) increasing community participation in education, with an emphasis on local level school ownership and management. Focus remains concentrated on promoting innovative programming, developing effective schools and classrooms, building capacity at both national and local levels, and promoting sustainable systemic reform. It is anticipated that additional countries will develop objectives in education during this IQC’s ordering period.

The region has experienced the greatest increase in the number of country program of all regions and now accounts for approximately 46% of the Agency’s basic education resources. The ANE Bureau supports basic education programs in 14 countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Yemen. Most efforts are focused on support for teacher training, enhanced education quality, opportunities for adults and out-of-school children, secondary school accelerated learning, school construction and renovation.

The incorporating information and communication technology

The Europe and Eurasia Bureau supports limited number of activities in basic education.  These programs are concentrated in 5 countries – in Macedonia and in the countries of Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) and account for 2% of the Agency’s basic education resources. With the exception of Tajikistan, the projects target both primary and secondary levels. Unlike many of the other geographic regions, the countries in the E&E region have attained almost universal primary enrollment rates and, for the most part, have been able to maintain them despite the dramatic declines in economic growth that followed the dissolution of the Soviet Union and collapse of the communist bloc. 

The primary challenge facing most of the countries in the region is to stem the declining rate of attendance and drop out at the upper secondary level, and particularly in technical and vocational schools. The Central Asian region has the most comprehensive basic education program that focuses on improving in-service teacher training, curriculum development that emphasizes child-centered approaches, increased parent and community involvement in schools, strengthening institutional management and technical capacities at the national, regional/local, and schools administrative levels, and on improving school infrastructure. In addition to the components mentioned above, the Macedonia programs address specific learning needs of minorities (Roma); vocational education that tries to strengthen the linkages between instruction and the business community; and incorporating information and communication technology into classroom activities.  In addition, basic education activities, such as civic education and Junior Achievement, are also supported by sectors of Democratic Governance and Economic Growth.  During the past few years, two cross-cutting themes have emerged as part of activities in the education sector – youth and corruption in education.  Several missions are considering and adopting a cross-cutting approach to youth throughout the SOs.

Issues of corruption in education are addressed through increased participation of parents and communities in school activities.  An innovative approach at addressing issues of corruption as well as access and equity for secondary school leavers is development of an independent national testing organization that promotes transparency in university admissions.

OTHER MAJOR PROBLEMS THAT WOMEN IN THE VILLAGE EXPERIENCE

The respondents of this study were asked about the general problems that they and their fellow women in the village commonly and often encounter. Problems can typically be categorized as (i) basic necessities (viz., illiteracy, general health problems and lack of hospital facilities, poor water and sanitation facilities, poverty), (ii) livelihood (viz., lack of capital for business or enterprise development, seasonal unemployment, lack of rods and markets, lack of water and irrigation facilities, and lack of professional skills), and (iii) human rights (viz., domestic violence, insecurity, and susceptibility to HIV/AIDS). Women’s living, livelihood and human rights come under challenge in course of their exposure and vulnerability to these problems. 

The respondents reported that women usually encounter more than one problem simultaneously.  Problems are provided by district and provinces are (1) Bovel district: Season unemployment (between farming seasons), Domestic violence, Lack of arable land, Lack of capital (for business and enterprise development, Divorce and child custody issue, Prevalence of HIV/AIDS and other health problems, Lack of institutional support, and Poverty (2) Rattanak Mondul district: Health problem, Domestic violence, Husband does not afford the family, Poverty, and  Distant location of hospital,Lack of water, irrigation infrastructure, and other inputs for agricultural production, Seasonal unemployment Divorce issue, and  Prevalence of HIV/AIDS (3) Thmar Pouk district: Seasonal unemployment, Poverty, Lack of water, irrigation infrastructure, and other inputs for agricultural production, Health problem, Domestic violence, Poor rural road infrastructure, Lack of market, Insecurity, and Lack of knowledge on laws among men and women. (4) Phnom Srok district: Seasonal unemployment, Poverty, Over family size (lack of contraception), Alcoholism, gambling and extra-marital relations of men (husband), Illiteracy (of women), Health problem, Lack of water and sanitation facilities, Lack of legal knowledge, Lack of capital for business or enterprise development, and Domestic violence. (5) Angkor Thom district: Poverty, Health problem, Season unemployment, Lack of professional skills, Lack of water, irrigation facilities and other inputs for agricultural production, Illiteracy, Over family size, Prevalence of HIV/AIDS, Lack of water and sanitation facilities, Domestic violence, and Alcoholism, gambling and extra-marital relations of men (husband). (6) Soutr Nikum district: Lack of capital for business development, Poverty, Domestic violence, Illiteracy, Health problems, Poor rural road infrastructure, Seasonal unemployment, Alcoholism, gambling and extra-marital relations of men (husband), Lack of professional skills, Distance location of hospital, Lack of water and sanitation facilities, and Over family size

The reveals of this section that women in all areas encounter some common problems such as poverty, seasonal unemployment, domestic violence, lack of capital for business and enterprise development, health (maternal) problems, and poverty. Experience with these problems certainly affects well-being, welfare and livelihood of women in specific and other family members in general. Some problems are linked and associated with men’s traditional gender ideologies and practices such as alcoholism, gambling and coercive intra-household gender relations (that leads to domestic violence).     

Specifically situated livelihood of women

This study specifically situated livelihood of women in project target areas. A specific number of women were selected and interviewed in this study. The responses of these selected women represent all other remaining women of the areas. The study reveals that women’s livelihood is constrained by different factors –internal and external. In one hand, they lack necessary skills, knowledge, and capital to be fully economically independent and empowered. On other hand, their economic dependency makes them vulnerable to domestic violence, malnutrition, HIV/AIDS infection and other health and different forms of sub-ordination at family and commune level. Their knowledge about their empowerment is poor and shallow. Only a small percentage of the women have so far attended in any training, workshop or similar events that explicitly make discussion on women’s rights, empowerment and gender equality. 

However, the good things in terms of their livelihood improvement are that they are already engaged in some sort of income (although meager income) generating occupations; possess traditional skills in some prospective areas; and eager to improve their skills for income improvement. On the basis of their status and situation, this study particularly identifies provisions of some support services, which are essential for improvement of livelihood and empowerment of the target women of the project. The provisions of essential support services are mentioned as recommendations in the below. Recommendations categorically refer to different sections.

There are number of cases of HIV/AIDS and malarial diseases in some villages. There is a growing concern that HIV/AIDS is transmitting in the family (among mother and new born) from men in Cambodia. Project and other stakeholders should further improve awareness of people, particularly among the men and migrants and potential migrants on HIV/AIDS infection and protection, educate villagers on how to prevent from malaria, provide mosquito net and medicine (quinine) to the villagers to protect and prevent malarial diseases. The other recommendations relevant to this section are (1) to initiate literacy program for women. The schooling time and accommodation should particularly suitable and flexible to make sure that target women can attend the class regularly (2) the literacy program can be accompanied with training events in traditional or indigenous areas of skills of the rural women. This can improve their skills and thus widen their choices of income diversification.

• Any programs that target women to diversify their income should consider the preferred or chosen occupations as listed in Table 3.11 for interventions.
• Women are more likely to engage in self-account enterprises or businesses. In this regard, they should be supported with credit, training and market facilities (including market information). 
• Any programs interventions for empowerment of women through income diversification undertaken by other development partners should be cautious about possible workload of target women. Workload of target women can be reinforced with their engagement in the new activities. Technology intensive programs activity is suggested instead of labor intensive one to reduce their workload that might cause from new occupation. 
• Male members of household of target women should also be targeted in the programs. They should be motivated to share household chores to assist their female partners for income generation.
• Improve food security through increased production of rice and other food crops to address malnutrition of women. The project should provide new technologies and inputs (including high-yield variety of rice) to improve rice production, particularly of families who have food shortage. At the same time, some program should be initiated to build awareness of nutrition of women and children.
• Initiate program interventions to build awareness of community people on how to prevent water born diseases.
• Launch effective anti-domestic violence program to address the issue of domestic violence, particularly in the villages of Phnom Srok district in Battambang province and Angkor Thom and Soutr Nikum district in Siem Reap province. Anti-domestic violence program can potentially consist of (i) strengthening partnership with local authorities (commune councilors, village chief, and police) to enforce the existing anti-domestic violence law, (ii) engage men in the form of network, and (iii) mobilize the network to build awareness of men on domestic violence.
• Migrant male members of the households of the respondents in this study experience different forms of exploitation in the place of their destination. This also affects the livelihood and wellbeing of the female members in their family back to rural areas. The project should initiate programs for the migrants and potential migrants so they can make informed migration to avoid any kind of exploitation in the place of destination.
• The female members (particularly of wife) are at higher risk of HIV/AIDS transmission by their migrant male partners. Reckless and unsafe sex of male migrants makes the female members of the family vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. The project should launch programs among the male migrants and potential male migrants about HIV/AIDS prevention through safe sex. 
• A higher percentage of women of this study are likely to migrate to neighboring countries such as Thailand. Women are particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation along with non-sexual forms. The project should initiate programs to address the potential risk through educating them on international labor law, law on trafficking and migration through legal channel.
• The stakeholders including project can initiate programs to improve skills of potential women migrants on the areas they are likely be employed in the place of destination upon their migration.
• Women’s economic dependence is a major barrier for their decision-making position in the family. The project should provide supports and services to women for their economic independence through income generation.
• Women lack skills, knowledge and leadership to make decision in community affairs. Their role in community affairs is passive. Women should be provided with leadership skills to improve their participation in community affairs. General education and skills also matter women’s leadership and confidence. Therefore, there is also necessity of education and skill training program for women to make sure that women play leadership roles in the community.
• Dialogs and forums can be organized at commune level to improve awareness of community people on women’s leadership and decision-making roles.
• Pro-active program intervention is needed to empower women. Program intervention should deliberately target to improve their economic, social and political statuses. A comprehensive program with education and skill training, income generation and leadership interventions can be appropriate to improve status of women in multiple areas.
• Build partnership with line agencies of government for effective implementation and enforcement of laws and policies that exist to protect women’s rights and promote gender equality.

The program for empowerment of women should target both men and women to make sure that it has two-prong effects: women gain better position in one hand and men give up their interest and position towards women’s equal position in other hand. Appropriate awareness campaign should be endorsed to promote mutual respect between men and women about their rights, roles and responsibilities in the family and community.